1. Utilitarianism:

   • Definition: An ethical theory that suggests the right action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or utility for the greatest number of people.

   • Example: Utilitarians would consider the consequences of an action to determine its ethical value.

2. Deontology:

   • Definition: A moral framework that emphasizes the importance of adhering to universal moral principles and duties.

   • Example: Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative is a deontological principle that emphasizes acting in ways that could be universalized.

3. Virtue Ethics:

   • Definition: An ethical theory that focuses on cultivating virtuous character traits to guide moral decision-making.

   • Example: Aristotle's virtue ethics suggests that one should aim to develop virtues like courage, wisdom, and compassion.

4. Rights-based Ethics:

   • Definition: A moral framework that centers on protecting and respecting individuals' inherent rights and freedoms.

   • Example: Human rights are considered a fundamental aspect of rights-based ethics.

5. Justice Ethics:

   • Definition: An ethical theory that emphasizes fairness, equality, and impartiality in the distribution of benefits and burdens.

   • Example: John Rawls' theory of justice focuses on the principles of fairness and the original position.

6. Ethical Relativism:

   • Definition: The belief that ethical principles and values are relative and vary depending on cultural, social, or individual perspectives.

   • Example: Ethical relativists argue that moral judgments are culturally specific and not universally applicable.

7. Feminist Ethics:

   • Definition: An ethical approach that highlights the importance of gender equality and challenges traditional gender roles and biases.

   • Example: Feminist ethics critique the historical exclusion of women's perspectives in ethical theories.

8. Casuistry:

   • Definition: An ethical reasoning method that involves comparing a current ethical dilemma to past cases with similar features and outcomes.

   • Example: Casuistry can be helpful in resolving complex moral dilemmas by considering precedent cases.

9. Ethical Pluralism:

   • Definition: The view that there are multiple valid ethical principles or theories, and sometimes, they may conflict with each other.

   • Example: Ethical pluralists believe that no single ethical theory can address all moral issues comprehensively.

10. Consequentialism:

    • Definition: A family of ethical theories that evaluate actions based on their outcomes or consequences.

    • Example: Utilitarianism and ethical egoism are both forms of consequentialism.

11. Non-Consequentialism:

    • Definition: Ethical theories that focus on the inherent nature of actions or rules rather than their outcomes.

    • Example: Deontological theories, such as Kantian ethics, are non-consequentialist in nature.

12. Ethical Egoism:

    • Definition: An ethical theory that holds individuals should act in their own self-interest, maximizing their own well-being.

    • Example: Ethical egoists argue that pursuing one's self-interest can ultimately lead to overall societal benefit.

13. Altruism:

    • Definition: The belief in and practice of unselfish concern for the well-being of others.

    • Example: Altruistic individuals prioritize the needs of others above their own.

14. Integrity:

    • Definition: The quality of being honest, consistent, and adhering to moral principles and values.

    • Example: Acting with integrity means upholding ethical standards even in challenging situations.

15. Moral Dilemma:

    • Definition: A situation in which a person faces conflicting moral principles and must choose between two or more ethically challenging options.

    • Example: Deciding whether to tell the truth to protect someone's feelings or being honest in a difficult situation presents a moral dilemma.

By familiarizing yourself with these ethical frameworks and related vocabulary, you can engage in thoughtful discussions about morality and ethical decision-making, contributing to a higher band score in the IELTS exam. Good luck with your studies!