1. Empiricism:

   • Definition: The theory that knowledge is primarily derived from sensory experience and observation of the external world.

   • Example: Empiricists argue that all ideas come from sensory impressions and experiences.

2. Rationalism:

   • Definition: The theory that knowledge is primarily gained through reason, logic, and innate mental faculties rather than sensory experiences.

   • Example: Rationalists believe that certain truths can be known a priori, without relying on empirical evidence.

3. Skepticism:

   • Definition: The philosophical position that calls for critical examination and doubt regarding the certainty of knowledge claims.

   • Example: Philosophical skeptics question the reliability of human senses and the ability to access objective truth.

4. Constructivism:

   • Definition: The theory that emphasizes the active role of the learner in constructing knowledge based on previous experiences and mental frameworks.

   • Example: In constructivist learning, students build understanding by connecting new information to their existing knowledge.

5. Intuitionism:

   • Definition: The belief that certain knowledge is self-evident and can be grasped through immediate intuition or introspection.

   • Example: Intuitionists argue that moral principles can be known directly through our intuitive sense of right and wrong.

6. Positivism:

   • Definition: The philosophical stance that emphasizes the use of scientific observation and empirical evidence to understand the world.

   • Example: Positivists seek to explain phenomena based on observable facts and reject speculation or metaphysics.

7. Coherentism:

   • Definition: The epistemological theory that asserts that knowledge is derived from the coherence and mutual support of beliefs within a system.

   • Example: Coherentists evaluate the truth of a belief by examining its consistency with other beliefs in the same belief system.

8. Foundationalism:

   • Definition: The theory that justifies knowledge based on foundational beliefs or basic axioms that serve as a secure starting point.

   • Example: Foundationalists argue that some beliefs are self-evident and do not require further justification.

9. Pragmatism:

   • Definition: A philosophical approach that evaluates the truth and value of beliefs based on their practical consequences and usefulness.

   • Example: Pragmatists prioritize what works in practice rather than focusing on abstract or theoretical principles.

10. Epistemological Relativism:

    • Definition: The position that asserts knowledge is relative to cultural, historical, or individual perspectives.

    • Example: Relativists argue that different cultures may have distinct ways of understanding and interpreting reality.

11. Epistemological Realism:

    • Definition: The view that knowledge represents an accurate reflection of an objective reality external to the knower.

    • Example: Realists believe that the external world exists independently of human perception or interpretation.

12. Epistemic Justification:

    • Definition: The process of providing adequate reasons or evidence to support a belief as true or reasonable.

    • Example: Epistemic justification is essential in determining the reliability and validity of knowledge claims.

13. Foundational Beliefs:

    • Definition: The fundamental beliefs or propositions upon which other knowledge claims are built.

    • Example: In Descartes' philosophy, the foundational belief "I think, therefore I am" serves as the basis for all knowledge.

14. A Priori Knowledge:

    • Definition: Knowledge that is independent of sensory experience and can be known purely through reason.

    • Example: Mathematical truths, such as 2 + 2 = 4, are considered a priori knowledge.

15. A Posteriori Knowledge:

    • Definition: Knowledge that is based on empirical evidence and obtained through sensory experience.

    • Example: Knowledge of the temperature outside requires a posteriori observation.

By familiarizing yourself with these epistemological theories and related vocabulary, you can demonstrate a sophisticated understanding of how we acquire knowledge and critically evaluate different perspectives, contributing to a higher band score in the IELTS exam. Good luck with your studies!